As noted by the Transportation Association of Canada, successfully salt reduction strategy requires changes in procedures, practices, equipment, and acceptance of new approaches by managers, supervisors, and operators. For this reason, effective training programs must demonstrate the value of new procedures and ensure that personnel are competent in delivering the new program. This can be a significant shift for long-time winter snow and ice control operators, where the past standard of a job well done has been to see how much salt they can put down during their shift: "More is Better" or "When In Doubt – Put It Out."

Over applying sand and salt is as much a decision-making problem as it is a technical one; plow operators can make good decisions with old equipment and they can make terrible decisions with state-of-the art equipment.[N] If an operator is using too much sand and salt, saving salt should be as simple as dialing in a lower application rate. To counteract the pressure to overuse salt, it is necessary to provide plow operators with the skills and tools to make good application rate decisions including standard application rate guidelines, based on pavement temperature, calibration, and equipping the plow trucks with infrared pavement sensors or some other means of accessing real-time pavement temperatures may enable the operators to follow these guidelines. Organizing five minute meetings and discussing application rates before and after snow and ice events may give operators the chance to learn about application rates from each other.[N] MnDOT developed a performance-based program for reducing application rates called "Salt Solutions" that provided operators with tools and systems for making better application rate decisions. Application rates dropped when the entire organization actively supported the operators in making better decisions and the agency took the time to measure and reward improved performance.[N]

As the Transportation Association of Canada notes, traditionally, equipment-related training focused on equipment maintenance and the safe operation of the vehicle and a plow operator could be forgiven for only plowing, just as a spreader operator might only spread. As equipment evolved, so did specific training on the differences between vehicles, which covered the spreader controller features and how to change settings, etc. These aspects of staff training are still essential to the safe and effective use of equipment. Further equipment-related training, however, should emphasize the impact of the operator's decisions made along the route, the range of settings and methodologies available to the operator, and tie these to her/his roles as a "snow and ice controller" and "decision-maker." Equipment training is integral with other winter maintenance topics such as the science of salt and record keeping. With today's understanding of best practices for snow and ice control and with the more sophisticated equipment that is available, operators need to understand that "decision-making" means choosing to spread when appropriate, and – equally important – choosing not to spread when it is not required. It is important to choose to plow the accumulated snow and slush, and important to not prematurely plow salt-laden slush before the salt has done its job. To ensure operators are confident in their duties and in using the assigned equipment, operators should have training in such equipment-related topics as: [N]

• Route familiarization (preferably during daylight).
• Pre-season driver training.
• Spreader calibration.
• "circle-check" procedures.
• Spreader controller operation.
• Brine equipment operation.
• Equipment washing procedures.
• Minor equipment repair.
• Good housekeeping practices.
• Record keeping.
• Use and interpretation of pavement sensor data and forecasts.
• Infrared thermometer use.
• Agency policies.

The following equipment-related learning goals should be included in a training program:

• Understand the concept of putting out the right material, in the right amount, at the right time, and leaving it there long enough to do the job.
• Understand how the electronic controller and gate settings on each spreader must be set to achieve the specified application rate.
• Understand how to calibrate each spreader to ensure that the right amount of material is being spread.
• Understand how to recognize when re-calibration is necessary.
• Understand the importance of timely plowing.
• Understand how to efficiently plow each beat/route.
• Understand the role and effective placement of snowdrift control devices (structural snow fences, snow ridging, agricultural stubble, living snow fences).
• Understand how to fill spreaders and anti-icing units with liquid chemicals.
• Understand the health, safety and environmental precautions that need to be taken when handling liquid chemicals.
• Understand how to measure brine concentrations.
• Understand the components and purpose of RWIS installations.
• Understand how to properly mount a truck-mounted IRT so as to ensure accurate readings.
• Understand that IRTs are for measuring temperature trends not exact temperatures.
• Understand precautions about handling and using IRTs.
• Understand the importance of proper record keeping and how to complete the required documentation on equipment maintenance and salt use.

Training will necessarily include such on-the-job elements as preseason "dry runs." Drainage facilities, wildlife crossing structures and other facilities requiring delineation or special treatment in plowing operations should be noted by foremen and equipment operators during dry runs of routes in the fall along with possible obstructions.

It is not likely that all staff will need the same level of training. The amount of training and the level of detail of training that is required by specific personnel will vary. For example, managers may not need to know how to calibrate a spreader or to plow a road in order to carry out their responsibilities. They should however understand the importance of an effective calibration program and what equipment is needed to optimize salt use.

Operators that do not make salt application decisions may not have to understand much about the decision support systems. However, they need to understand salt application policies, the chemistry and application of salt, the environmental issues, good housekeeping practices at maintenance yards, record keeping, equipment operation and relevant decision-support information. Training needs vary among employees. New staff will need the full training program; determining competency among a range of staff and experience levels is more complex and often requires data gathering and testing and feedback in the course of work.

Trainers should assemble a bank of local case studies, local photos and examples to reinforce learning goals. Training opportunities should not be limited to formal classroom settings. Trainers should be aware of the workplace schedules, inclement weather policies, shift changes and shift downtime for example and take advantage of these windows of opportunity to present training modules. Depending on the regular duties of the staff there are also opportunities to provide training in informal tailgate sessions or in post storm debriefing sessions.

The Transportation Association of Canada set out the following learning goals and best practices related to winter operations and salt management training.[N]

• Understand the definition and importance of level of service and that the goal is to achieve the prescribed level of service.
• Understand the organization's Operating Policies and their application to winter operations.
• Understand the organization's Salt Management Policy.

• Understand slippery road conditions are a result of water being cooled below its freezing point on the road surface.
• Understand the sources of moisture on the road include dew, rain, and snow.
• Understand dew point and what conditions will lead to dew forming on the road surface. Understand what conditions will lead to frost and black ice forming on the road surface.
• Understand the importance of pavement temperature in making snow and ice control decisions.
• Understand why bridges freeze first.

• Understand the concept of a freeze point depressant.
• Understand that chemicals are used to prevent or break the bond between snow and ice.
• Know the chemical composition of rock salt, and other chemicals used by the transportation agency.
• Understand that brine rather than the solid chemical melts the snow and ice.
• Understand the phase diagram for the chemicals that are used in the organization.
• Understand the implication of chemical concentrations greater than the eutectic concentration.
• Understand the criteria for the selection of de-icing chemicals.
• Understand the relationship between chemical concentrations and freeze point.
• Understand that dry chemicals and pre-wetted chemicals take time to work.
• Understand that a change from a solid to a liquid requires heat and can rapidly cool a road surface.
• Understand the testing requirements and risks associated with the introduction of new snow and ice control chemicals.
• Understand the principle of refreeze.

• Understand the role of traffic and crossfall of the road in forming and distributing brine.
• Understand when to windrow and when to spin a pre-wetted solid.
• Understand how to treat special areas such as bridges and culverts, super-elevations, intersections, hills (crests, sags, inclines), bus stops and high wind conditions.
• Understand that chemical should not be applied to dry pavement where drifting snow is not sticking.
• Understand when to use and not use specific chemicals, taking into account pavement temperatures, forecasts, time of day, humidity, traffic volumes etc.

• Understand the procedure for making snow and ice control liquids from solid chemicals.
• Understand the importance of quality control and chemical concentration.

• Understand the benefits of using pre-wetting chemicals and abrasives.
• Understand the difference between proactive anti-icing and reactive de-icing.
• Understand how dry materials are pre-wetted.
• Understand that salt and sand can bounce or be blown off the road and that this product loss can be reduced by pre-wetting.

• Understand the concepts of liquid anti-icing.
• Understand the benefits of a proactive anti-icing approach.
• Understand how to fill spreaders and anti-icing units with liquid chemicals.
• Understand the health, safety and environmental precautions that need to be taken when handling liquid chemicals.
• Understand how to measure brine concentrations.

• Understand the timing of plowing operations so that chemicals are not plowed off the road prematurely.
• Understand the importance of timely plowing.
• Understand how to efficiently plow each beat/route.

• Understand that chlorides are mobile in the environment.
• Understand that road salt may attract some wildlife to the road, potentially increasing the hazard of animal/vehicle collisions.
• Understand that high salt levels can harm vegetation and agricultural crops adjacent to the roadway.
• Understand that high salt levels can harm animals including fish living in streams, wetlands and lakes.
• Understand that it is desirable to only use enough chemical to achieve the prescribed level of service.

• Understand that all salt and sand/salt blends should be covered to minimize salt loss.
• Understand that salt spillage is wasteful and can be harmful to the environment.
• Understand the salt-handling activities that result in wasteful releases of salt to the environment.
• Understand how these salt-handling activities should be carried out to prevent the wasteful release of salt to the environment.
• Understand that timely yard maintenance and repairs are necessary to control salt loss.
• Understand maintenance yard salt cleanup procedures that must be followed.

• Understand how to manage the snow pile to facilitate melting.
• Understand the measures to be used to control nuisance effects (noise, dust, litter).
• Understand how to monitor and record chloride, metal, pH, TPH and suspended solids in meltwater discharges.
• Understand how the snow disposal system has to be managed to be cost-effective and to reduce environmental and social impacts.

• Understanding how to manage the snow pile to facilitate melting.
• Understanding the measures to be applied to control nuisance effects such as:
  • Noise from trucks and equipment.
  • Visual impacts such as dirty snow piles and vehicle and site lights from nighttime dumping.
  • Dust.
  • Litter and debris.
• Understanding how to monitor, and record the chloride, metals, pH, Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons (TPH) and suspended solids in the meltwater discharges.
• Understand how the snow disposal system has to be managed to be cost effective and to reduce environmental and social impacts.
• Understand the importance of proper record keeping and how to complete the required documentation on snow received and quality of meltwater being discharged.

• Understand the importance of timely and accurate records.
• Understand the importance of good records for mounting a due diligence defense in the event of a lawsuit.
• Understand how to complete the organization's activity/ storm reports.
• Understand the importance of recording actions and inactions and the rationale for each.
• Understand the importance of knowing the beat/route and what it takes to properly maintain it to the prescribed LOS.

• Understand the concept of putting out the right material, in the right amount, at the right time, and leaving it there long enough to do the job.
• Understand how the electronic controller and gate settings on each spreader must be set to achieve the specified application rate.
• Understand how to calibrate each spreader to ensure that the right amount of material is being spread.
• Understand how to recognize when re-calibration is necessary.

• Understand the role and effective placement of snow drift control devices (structural snow fences, snow ridging, agricultural stubble, living snow fences). More information on snow fence and berm design is included in Chapter 3-10.

• Understand the kinds and sources of weather information.
• Understand how to read a weather forecast.
• Understand what can affect local weather conditions and why weather might vary from one location to another.
• Understand lake effect snowfalls.
• Understand that wind chill does not significantly affect absolute road temperatures but does affect the rate of cooling.
• Understand when a forecast could be wrong.

• Understand that a wind of 15 km/hr is needed to drift snow.
• Understand how wind changes can signal an approaching or passing storm.

• Understand how to monitor weather conditions and anticipate changes.
• Understand how to read a radar image and use the information in decision-making.

• Understand how weather forecasts can be used in making snow and ice control decisions.

• Understand the concept of heat balance and how it can affect pavement temperatures.
• Understand how to read a pavement condition forecast.
• Understand how pavement condition forecasts and real time information can be used in making snow and ice control decisions.

• Understand the components and purpose of RWIS installations.
• Understand how to read and interpret RWIS data.
• Understand how to properly mount a truck-mounted IRT so as to avoid erroneous readings.
• Understand that IRT's are for measuring temperature trends, not exact temperatures.
• Understand why odd readings might be obtained (e.g. interference, out of calibration, acclimatization, buried utilities, shading etc).
• Understand precautions about handling and using IRTs.
• Understand the role of pavement crossfall in snow and ice control and when to windrow and when to broadcast chemicals.
• Understand the importance of pavement surface temperature on snow and ice control decision-making.
• Understand how to track pavement temperature trends.
• Understand what factors can affect pavement temperatures and how knowledge of these factors can be used to predict temperature changes.
• Understand how to treat different pavement conditions during different types of weather events. Also, good pavement design can help improve road salt performance, minimize usage for the same or better level of service and safety, and thus reduce environmental impact.
• Monitor pavement temperatures to assist in making decisions. This can be done when mobile using hand held or truck mounted infrared thermometers. Road Weather Information Systems can provide a surface and subsurface pavement temperature at a fixed location, and can support the generation of a pavement condition forecast as well as real-time pavement condition information.
• Record pavement temperature trends in daily logs, along with pavement conditions, weather conditions and winter treatment strategy.
• Test pavement temperature monitoring equipment at least annually to ensure that they are operating correctly. Inaccurate equipment should be recalibrated, repaired or replaced.

Trainings should be scheduled for each fall, close to the onset of the snow and ice control season and should include seasonal and contracted personnel. While this season of the year prevents the actual plowing of snow, it does not preclude training and testing on such items as; trucks, grader and loader operation, mounting and adjusting the plow, familiarity with plow and spreader control, driving skills involving turning and backing, and clearance judgment with the plow mounted. This type of training can be given by Equipment Operator Instructors.

Some transportation agencies have included testing and a minimum passing grade in their training programs. In the absence of any industry certification standards this type of internal agency certification may be advantageous to those transportation agencies wanting to provide an assurance of minimum competency levels.

PENNDOT's training program is incorporated with winter planning, which starts in April with after action reviews, equipment repairs, route identification, and route assignments. In the fall, PENNDOT conducts dry runs, marks hazards, and familiarizes operators. Foremen have to sign off that equipment operators have done this. Training for Winter Operations includes "Levels of Service," presented by the leader of the local organization. The training addresses mission, vision, customer service philosophy, priority roads, intervals of service, peak travel times, local directives and changes, alternative resources—temporary operators, etc. A "Smart Salting" module covers material testing, sampling, salt specs for current year's content and other elements, including how to read lab reports. The training program and standards are presented as putting the operator in charge of his own destiny; by adhering to internally developed procedures, PENNDOT staff attends to these issues so the state environmental agency doesn't have to. One quarter of the workforce attends a two day Snow Academy yearly. All other employees receive one day Snow Academy refresher training. Trucks are equipped with ground speed controlled spreaders, which allow precise control of material application rates at any speed or engine rpm with "electric over hydraulic" controls and load-sensing hydraulic pumps. Training occurs on this equipment as well. All spreaders are calibrated each year.

NYSDOT has had to work to educate and train their workforce, the public, and even the police. The Department has implemented training to teach that "the way we've always done it" is not acceptable; the Department wants to get the most bang for the buck AND do an effective and safe job. NYSDOT found their decision to dedicate more resources to training is bearing fruit and raising consciousness among staff. One class is "Salt Sensitivity for Stormfighters." The agency teaches where all the applied salt and brine go; 55 percent goes back into surface drains, 45 percent goes into the ground and affects roadside vegetation. Liquid brine has led to salt reductions but increased mowing, as salt retards growth. NYSDOT trains designers for considering snow and ice as well; i.e. enough road to store the snow, roads built on a slight berm, for snow to blow across, road geometrics, design of living snow fences, identification of drainage features and roadside water quality receptors, and use of raised markers, roundabouts, turnabouts, and curbing.

Maintenance environmental specialists focus on erosion control and spill containment year round. NYSDOT has developed Snow & Ice Guidelines primarily for managers, with application rates, storage of materials, etc.; it is currently being revised and will be out in 2005. NYSDOT has another version for operators, NYSDOT's Snow and Ice Operators Manual, that reviews application rates, how to plow, when to use chains or not, how to put on plow wings, etc. The Department is certifying operators and one-person plowing and providing a certification for calibration. NYSDOT encourages many employees to get this training because it gives them a better appreciation for application rates. Promotional opportunities are tied to these certifications for Category 3 operators.